Identifying a Ghost Plant

All the plants in the fumitory family look somewhat similar to the common garden plant known as bleeding heart (Dicentra spectabilis), shown above. I think every child in the prairies has observed the heart-shaped pink and white flowers of this spring-blooming species before. I’ve got several in my yard that were probably planted when the house was built in the 1950’s. The leaves of species in this family are divided and almost fern-like in appearance. The flowers have four petals but they are irregularly shaped; that is, they are not all identical to each other, similar to snapdragons or orchids. The two inner petals are a different shape from the two outer petals. The outer petals may be mirror images of each other (e.g. Dutchman’s breeches, climbing fumitory) or dissimilar (corydalis). Although these plants are often lumped in with the poppy family (Papaveraceae), some sources (i.e. Flora of North America) consider them unique enough to be in their own family, the Fumariaceae.

Ecologically the plants in this family are poisonous (so no nibbling). Insects, however, enjoy the nectar found in the petal spurs. To get the nectar, long-tongued pollinators have to pry the outer petals apart, in the process rubbing up against the male (stamens) and female (pistil) parts of the flower, resulting in fertilization. However, some shorter-tongued insects have figured out that they can get the nectar just by nibbling a hole in the petal spur. See if you can find any of these cheat holes in the plants that you observe in nature.

Here’s an identification key to the plants of the fumitory family (Fumariaceae) found in Manitoba. To use this key, select the statement that best describes your plant until you arrive at a species name rather than a number.

While searching for more information, I discovered that this species is not common anywhere it occurs in the wild, in part because it is a biennial. That means its seeds germinate and grow a few leaves the first year, producing flowers and fruits only in the second year. Then it dies, remaining in the soil as a seed until its germination is triggered. But what triggers the germination? The references I found note that fires, windstorms and insect outbreaks that open up the forest canopy are likely triggers. But the soil cannot be severely damaged the way it often is with logging so apparently you don’t tend to see it in clearcuts. Plus, it likes rocky, acidic soils that stay consistently moist in places that are not too windy, and that have some trees or cliffs that it can climb up since it is a vine. In short, it appears to be adapted to thrive in very particular types of environments that don’t occur all that often anymore.

I began to wonder why Lowe found this species in the 1940’s. Since I couldn’t find any records of a large forest fire in the late 1930’s near West Hawk Lake, I thought that perhaps it was construction of the campgrounds and roads during that time that created a suitable opening in the canopy for this species. Decades of fire suppression, which improved greatly after World War II due to the use of aerial water bombers, have likely prevented the creation of the post-fire habitats in this area that the species needs. So even though humans have not changed this habitat by directly destroying it, we have changed it by altering the natural fire cycles that occurred before Europeans arrived. The presence of so many cottagers in the West Hawk and Falcon Lake areas means that any natural fires that do ignite will likely not be allowed to get anywhere near the recreational areas to protect human lives.

After so many years without disturbance, any seeds of climbing fumitory that were in the soil seed bank have likely died, and if that has happened, then this species may indeed be extinct in Manitoba. However, if an insect outbreak or windstorm damage occurs in the right spot, all may not be lost.  One thing I was reminded of during my trip is that the boreal forest is vast and, in many places, completely inaccessible to humans.  Climbing fumitory may still be hiding somewhere in this vast forest, waiting for some intrepid individual to stumble across it again.

We share our world with billions of other organisms and they play a crucial role in our survival, providing the ecosystem services that keep us alive: making oxygen for us to breathe, filtering toxins from our water, and providing shade for us and our homes to name a few benefits. With so many cultural events being cancelled this year due to Covid-19, you may be planning on spending some time in nature this summer. Thus, now is an excellent time to learn to identify some of the beautiful wild plants that grow in our province.

As part of my Museum work, I have been writing an identification guide to all the vascular plants (i.e. ferns, conifers and flowers) in the province. Unfortunately, it is nowhere close to being done. However, in the interim, I can provide some information on how to identify some of the prettiest plants you will encounter in the prairies and forests of Manitoba: the lilies.

There are only five wild lilies that are typically found in sunny, prairie habitats: Wood lily, prairie onion, autumn onion, eastern yellow stargrass and mountain death camas. One of these plants is poisonous. Can you guess which one? The word “death” in the name kind of gives it away, no?

Lily species that grow in sunny habitats have narrow leaves, to reduce their sun exposure. In contrast, the lilies that grow in forested habitats tend to have wider leaves to better capture the dappled light that occurs on the forest floor. Most of the forest lilies have white flowers (sometimes with invisible ultraviolet (UV) patterns that bees can see), because white is more visible in a dark environment like a forest floor. Fairy-bells, Solomon’s-seal and false Solomon’s seal (Maianthemum spp.) are among the most common species in Manitoba. In the southeastern forests you will also find the highly attractive nodding trillium with its leaves in three parts and dangly white flower, and the lovely yellow clintonia.

• Autumn onion – Allium stellatum Fraser ex Ker Gawl.
• Clasping-leaved twisted-stalk – Streptopus amplexifolius (L.) DC.
• Eastern yellow stargrass – Hypoxis hirsuta (L.) Coville
• Giant Solomon’s seal – Polygonatum biflorum (Walt.) Ell.
• Large false Solomon’s seal – Maianthemum racemosum (L.) Link
• Large-flowered bellwort – Uvularia grandiflora Sm.
• Midwestern rose twisted-stalk – Streptopus lanceolatus (Ait.) Reveal
• Mountain death camas – Zigadenus elegans Pursh
• Nodding trillium – Trillium cernuum L.
• Prairie onion – Allium textile A. Nels. & J.F. Macbr.
• Rough-fruited fairybells – Prosartes trachycarpa S. Wats.
• Sessile-leaved bellwort – Uvularia sessilifolia L.
• Small tofieldia – Tofieldia pusilla (Michx.) Pers.
• Star-flowered false Solomon’s seal – Maianthemum stellatum (L.) Link
• Sticky tofieldia – Triantha glutinosa (Michx.) Baker
• Three-leaved false Solomon’s seal – Maianthemum trifolium (L.) Sloboda.
• Wild chives – Allium schoenoprasum L.
• Wild leek – Allium tricoccum Ait.
• Wild lily-of-the-valley – Maianthemum canadense Desf.
• Wood lily – Lilium philadelphicum L.
• Yellow clintonia – Clintonia borealis (Ait.) Raf.

It is pretty well known that plants differ from animals due to their ability to make their own food using just carbon dioxide, water and sunlight through a process called photosynthesis. But some plants are a bit lazy and figured “why should I make my own food like a sucker when I can just steal some from my neighbor?” Thus, the strategy of plant parasitism was born.

The secret to being a plant parasite is to produce modified roots, called haustoria. Rather than collecting water and minerals from the earth like normal roots, haustoria pierce the roots or stems of other plants and tap into their vascular systems. The haustoria suck up the sap from the parasitized plants, obtaining water, minerals and the product of photosynthesis: sugar. The parasitized plants are weakened but not usually killed, unless stressed for other reasons.

The evolutionary journey to parasitism was not always completed; while some species became full parasites (=holo-parasites), such as dodders (Cuscuta spp.) and dwarf-mistletoes (Arceuthobium spp.), others are only partial parasites (=hemi-parasites). Hemi-parasites still produce green leaves and are capable of photosynthesis, unlike the holo-parasites, which no longer perform any photosynthesis at all. Through their haustoria, hemi-parasites obtain mainly water and minerals from the parasitized plants, which means they can grow in habitats where they might normally be at a competitive disadvantage in terms of their ability to obtain enough soil resources.

The Sandalwood family contains the most common parasites in the province: the holo-parasite dwarf-mistletoe, and the hemi-parasites pale comandra (Comandra umbellata) and false toadflax (Geocaulon lividum). Pale comandra typically grows in dry prairies, parasitizing a wide variety of common plants like asters and roses, while false toadflax is found in our northern forests living off of woody plants like bearberry (Arctostaphylos spp.) or asters.

All plants in the Broom-rape family including paintbrushes (Castilleja spp.), owl’s-clover (Orthocarpus luteus), louseworts (Pedicularis spp.), eyebrights (Euphrasia spp.), cow-wheat (Melampyrum lineare), and false foxgloves (Agalinus spp.) are hemi-parasites. Many of the broom-rapes have colourful, fragrant, two-lipped flowers that attract and support many pollinators, typically bees and butterflies. In Manitoba, 15 of the plants in this family are considered rare (ranked as critically imperilled, imperilled or vulnerable by the Manitoba Conservation Data Centre). Gattinger’s agalinis (Agalinis gattingeri) and rough agalinis (A. aspera) are both extremely rare and legally protected under the national Species-at-risk Act, 2002 and the provincial Endangered Species and Ecosystems Act, 2018. The rare and unusual-looking broomrapes (Orobanche spp.) are holo-parasites on wild asters, possessing no leaves, just coppery-coloured stems and large white, yellow or purplish flowers. Many of these rare parasitic plants grow in our endangered native prairies, dependent on the wild plants that grow there, which are themselves increasingly rare due to exotic species encroachment, habitat loss and climate change. Clearly, being a parasite is not as carefree as it sounds.

Now that you know they exist, be on the lookout for these, sometimes lovely, sometimes ugly, groups of free-loading plants.

Canada’s trees have developed some resistance to native diseases and insect pests. However, climate change has been facilitating more forest damage. For example, the native Mountain Pine Beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) used to be held in check because it was killed by extremely cold winter temperatures, which occur less frequently now than they used to. Additionally, in the last 125 years, the importation of live trees and untreated wood from other continents has brought in many pests that now threaten not just urban trees, but the integrity and survival of our wild forests as we know them. Likewise, the accidental importation of North American diseases and pests, such as the Pinewood Nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus), threatens forests on other continents. The stories of just three threatened Canadian tree species are recounted below.

(Castanea dentata)

American Chestnut leaves and fruits from the Manitoba Museum’s collection. MM F-38.

(Ulmus americana)

The beautiful Pembina Valley is full of wild American Elm and ash trees.

(Fraxinus spp.)

Manitoba’s Green Ash is being decimated by the introduced Emerald Ash Borer.

There are many things we can do to help protect our trees.

1. Slow the Spread
Follow all biosafety protocols regarding importation of any plant or plant product. Buying locally grown trees and nursery plants, and locally produced wood mulch rather than imported products is the safest option. Consider buying and refinishing antique furniture, and using reclaimed or recycled wood for woodworking and construction projects instead of new wood. To be safe, don’t transport ANY firewood; burn local wood only.

4. Support scientific research
Scientific research that was started 43-years ago at an arboretum at Penn State may hold the key to saving ash trees as some appear to have natural resistance and can be used for breeding resistant stock. In Canada, the University of Guelph has been leading a breeding program for DED-resistant American Elm trees. The National Tree Seed Centre in Fredericton, New Brunswick stores seeds of Canada’s native trees, which can be used to breed resistant plants. In fact, the public is being encouraged to collect and send them wild ash seeds for their seed bank. But public support for research that doesn’t appear to offer any immediate benefit, is not always forthcoming. Real life is not like a Hollywood movie; scientists can’t conjure up cures to diseases overnight. It takes years of research to come up with solutions to new problems. Let your political representatives know you support publicly-funded science.

Trees provide us with so much-oxygen, shade, beauty, wildlife to admire and even food-that we need to give something back. You can report sick trees in Winnipeg by calling 311, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency or the Emerald Ash Borer hotline at 1-866-463-6017. If you lost a tree to disease or the tree-pocalypse storm in October 2019, consider planting a new one as soon as you can. Many Winnipeg greenhouses will even deliver plants right to your door this year. If you would like to see a tree planted on a city-owned boulevard or park, you can ask the city of Winnipeg to plant one. Remember the best time to plant a tree was 20 years ago. The second-best time is now. Enjoy your neighborhood trees this spring!

Parasites and diseases are what population ecologists call density-dependent causes of mortality; factors that only affect an individuals’ survival when populations are at high densities. Other density-dependent factors affecting plant survival include: competition for resources, such as water, light and soil minerals, and intense herbivory (usually by insects). In general, density-dependent causes of mortality are biotic, that is, caused by other organisms. Density-independent factors of mortality are usually abiotic (not alive) or environmental: forest fires, drought and volcanic eruptions that bury vegetation in lava are a few examples.

There are plenty of plant parasites and diseases that evolved right here in North America. However, most native plants have evolved methods to resist these organisms to some degree so it is not always fatal to the plant, unless it is in a weakened state. During droughts for example, trees are much more likely to die of a disease. Since the colonization of North America occurred, species of diseases that were not native to this continent have been accidentally introduced, typically with dire consequences. In my next blog, I will be discussing how three species of native Canadian trees (American Chestnut, American Elm, and Green Ash) are being negatively impacted by introduced diseases, and how we can change our behaviour to protect our forests, both wild and urban.

One of the most significant contributions that America’s Indigenous peoples have made is with respect to agriculture. Many of our most beloved foods (e.g. chocolate, potatoes, corn) are native to the Americas, being initially cultivated or domesticated by Indigenous farmers. 

Indigenous agriculture has a long history with the most recent archaeological evidence suggesting it has been practiced in the Americas for at least 10,000 years, almost the same time length of time as in the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East. There were five agricultural centers of origin (i.e. places where multiple species were cultivated or domesticated) in the Americas: three in South America and one each in Central and North America. 

Crop plants cultivated or domesticated in the Americas by Indigenous peoples. 

Cereals & pseudo-cereals: Amaranth, chia, goosefoot, knotweed, little barley, maize (corn), maygrass, quinoa, sunflower and wild rice. 

Legumes & nuts: American chestnut, black walnut, Brazil nut, cashew, common beans (green, black, pinto, navy, etc.), hickory, lima beans, peanut, pecan, scarlet runner beans and tepary bean 

Roots & tubers: Arrachacha, arrowroot, camas root, cassava, hopniss, jicama, leren, mashua, oca, potatoes,  sunroot, sweet potato and yacón 

 Fruits: Acai, avocado, blueberry, chayote, cherimoya, cranberry, feijoa, guava, huckleberry, papaya, passionfruit, peppers, persimmon, pineapple, prickly pear, raspberry, squash,  strawberry, tomato and tomatillo 

Spices, beverages & flavours: Achiote, chicle, chocolate, coca, maple, tobacco,  vanilla and yerba mate 

 The Andes was where the earliest American crops (e.g. potatoes (Solanum spp.) were domesticated, about 10,000 years ago. Corn (Zea mays) and squash (Cucurbita spp.) domestication began in Central America 8,700 years ago and beans (Phaseolus spp.) shortly after. In the eastern U.S., agriculture was being practiced 3,800 years ago. 

Crops that were part of the “Eastern Agricultural Complex” in the southeastern U.S. included a variety of nutritious seed plants such as sunflower (Helianthus annuus), goosefoot (Chenopodium berlandieri), bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria), marshelder (Iva annua), little barley (Hordeum pusillum) and squash (Cucurbita pepo). Other domesticates that followed include ragweed (Ambrosia trifida), pigweed (Amaranthus spp.), and knotweed (Polygonum spp.).  After ~200 BCE  (before common era) corn, beans and squash from Mexico were brought to this region, and cold-tolerant varieties (e.g. Northern Flint) bred. The productivity of corn was so high that the traditional seed crops fell out of favour and were gradually abandoned. Sunflowers and squash are the only crop plants left from the original Eastern Agricultural Complex that are still grown today. The other species have largely reverted to their wild state. Some of these species are considered “weeds” in croplands today even though they are still edible. 

Most people are surprised to find out that Indigenous people were practicing agriculture in the Dakotas and Manitoba in the early 1400’s. In 1986, Manitoba Museum Curator Dr. Leigh Syms unearthed evidence that corn, beans, squash and sunflowers were being grown as far north as Lockport during that time (Learn more).  These three plants were traditionally grown close together, with the beans climbing up the corn stalks and the squash helping suppress weeds (Wilson 1987). Raising plants in this manner improved the fertility of the soil as beans harbour special bacteria that turn gaseous nitrogen into a form available to all plants (ammonium or nitrate). Together, these three plants were the foundation of a healthy, vegetarian Indigenous diet. Sunflowers, often called the fourth sister, were typically grown along the edges of Indigenous fields, and provided an additional source of fat and protein (Wilson 1987).  Climatic changes which resulted in a shorter growing season, and population losses due to diseases introduced after European contact in 1492, may have resulted in the abandonment of the cropland in Manitoba. 

After Europeans arrived in the Americas, crops from Eurasia (e.g. wheat, barley, oats) were brought here while American crop plants were transported to Africa, Asia and Europe; this process was known as the Columbian Exchange. Sometimes the new American foods were embraced readily (e.g. beans) but others were not, particularly those in the nightshade family (e.g. tomatoes, potatoes and peppers). In Europe, nightshade plants are mainly poisonous rather than edible, so people were suspicious of them. In France, people initially rejected the potato (they thought it caused leprosy) but King Louis the 16th was convinced by the agronomist Antoine Parmentier that it was a good food plant to grow. Apparently, Parmentier had potatoes planted in the Kings’ gardens and then set guards around them to prevent thefts (although the guards were told to accept bribes). This reverse psychology apparently worked and after some people got their hands on the potato, its cultivation spread. Many American crops are now an integral part of European, African and Asian food culture. However, introduction of these new foods did cause some problems. 

The knowledge of how to prepare American foods did not always accompany the food, possibly because Europeans of that time period were generally disdainful of Indigenous knowledge, customs and food culture. Unfortunately, this attitude ended up causing a lot of unnecessary deaths. 

People in warmer parts of Europe and Africa readily adopted corn because it was so much more productive than other crops. But after doing so, a strange new disease began affecting poor people who were relying mainly on corn for food. This disease is pellagra, a condition that causes dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia and eventually, after four or five years, death. Physicians were confused about this new diet-related disease because they noticed that even though Mexicans ate a lot of corn, they rarely got pellagra. The answer to this puzzle was in Indigenous food culture. Corn was often softened by soaking it in an alkaline solution. This softened corn, known as hominy, is then eaten as is, or dried and ground to make masa, the flour used to make tortillas and tamales, among other things. This process, known as nixtimilization, increases the bioavailability of niacin (vitamin B3) and tryptophan in corn. Pellagra is caused by a deficiency in niacin and tryptophan in the diet. In Europe, Asia, Africa and, even among poor, non-Indigenous people in the southern U.S. , people were just drying the corn, grinding it up and cooking it in dishes like cornbread or polenta. Eaten in this manner, with no other foods containing niacin in the diet, pellagra is the result. Another aspect of Indigenous food culture that was not taken to heart was the custom of eating corn with niacin-containing beans, resulting in a balanced diet. 

Racism, and the intellectual and cultural arrogance that accompanies it, has caused tremendous human suffering. Colonization and the discouragement of traditional Indigenous agricultural practices and cooking, resulted in the near loss of ancient varieties of crop plants such as quinoa, as well as the memory of how these foods should be grown and prepared. It is heartening to see Indigenous peoples embracing their gastronomic legacy by planting Three Sisters gardens, writing cookbooks featuring pre-colonial foods (e.g. The Sioux Chef’s Indigenous Kitchen, Cooking with the Wolfman, and tawâw) and opening innovative restaurants (e.g. Ishkode Indigenous Pop-up ). Part of reconciliation is simply accepting that Indigenous culture is valuable. Another part is supporting the efforts of Indigenous peoples in keeping their culture alive. Food has a way of bringing people together so maybe the path forward is to sit down and share a meal together. 

Reference 

Wilson, G. 1987. Buffalo Bird Woman’s Garden: Agriculture of the Hidatsa Indians. Minnesota Historical Society Press, MN. 

Plants with fruits that ripen late in the year often rely on flocks of migratory birds for dispersal. Birds are particularly good seed dispersers because they lack teeth, typically swallowing fruits whole. In bird stomachs, the fleshy part of the fruit is digested but the tough seeds usually excreted intact. In fact, the seeds of many plants need to pass through the guts of animals before they will even germinate. However, some fruits are toxic to mammals (like rodents) but not birds.  This is because mammals tend to chew the seeds as well as the fleshy parts, killing the baby plant. For that reason, berries that birds can eat are not always safe for people!  Therefore, make sure you have correctly identified and researched the toxicity of any fruit before you eat it.

Just like all creatures, plants want to reproduce themselves. But they typically don’t want their offspring hanging around for too long, eating all the food in the fridge and drinking all the beer. But plant babies living on the land can’t move on their own, so how is an exasperated plant parent going to get their children to leave the nest?

Instead of producing swimming babies like algae do, the very first land plants produced special structures called spores. These spores, which grow into tiny plants, are small enough to be carried away easily by the wind, just like dust. For about 80 million years or so, the only plants on land were species that produced spores: club mosses, horsetails, ferns and mosses.

About 390 million years ago in the mid-Devonian, a new group of plants evolved that were capable of growing very quickly. They are known as the seed plants, and they have dominated life on land for many millions of years. But what exactly is a seed anyway and how is it different from a spore? A spore consists of only one cell; it’s basically a naked baby. For that reason, spore-producing plants aren’t very good parents; they just boot out their kids with nothing to eat and no clothes on. A seed on the other hand consists of three things: a baby, a bottle to feed the baby and clothes to protect the baby.

What if a plant lives somewhere that isn’t very windy though? What do they do? Stay tuned for part 2 of “The Perils of Plant Parenthood” to find out.

During a reconnaissance trip in July, I found a nice specimen that was eroding out of the dunes and in all likelihood would soon die. After taking some pictures and making a few notes, we channelled our inner badgers and began digging it up. In the end we obtained an impressive 160 cm piece of root along with the flowering stems. Although there were more fine roots lower down, the part we dug up is longer than we can even fit in the case so we left them behind. Since the site was a bit of a mess afterwards, we filled in the hole and patted the dune back to its previous contours. I was happy that a heavy rain that evening obliterated all evidence that we were ever there. The plant is now being pickled by the Diorama and Collections Technician in our secret proprietary solution (even I don’t know what’s in it!) to keep it fresh-looking and bendy!  Eventually it will be painted and mounted in its permenent home next fall.

So what is happening with the old crested wheatgrass plant? Don’t worry, it will still be on display but reinterpreted for its role in soil stabilization during the Great Depression.